Şerif Mardin examined modernisation, centre–periphery relations, ideology, civil society, religion, and the social circulation of ideas in Ottoman and modern Turkey.
Cemil Meriç examined language, concepts, ideology, cultural alienation, East and West, umran, irfan, translation, and intellectual independence in modern Turkish thought.
Turkish philosophy and thought develop through language, early texts, Islamic traditions, Ottoman institutions, modernisation, academic philosophy, cultural criticism, and continuing conceptual production.
