Erol Güngör examined cultural change, nationalism, values, religion, modernisation, historical continuity, and the role of intellectuals through social psychology and social analysis.
Taner Timur examines Ottoman and Republican history through social structure, class, political institutions, ideology, identity, Marxism, modernisation, and the methodology of historiography.
Şerif Mardin examined modernisation, centre–periphery relations, ideology, civil society, religion, and the social circulation of ideas in Ottoman and modern Turkey.
Turkish philosophy and thought develop through language, early texts, Islamic traditions, Ottoman institutions, modernisation, academic philosophy, cultural criticism, and continuing conceptual production.
Seurat places working-class leisure beside the industrial Seine, combining Pointillist colour, pastoral calm, modern labour, and the tension between nature and industry.
